Expressing lack of necessity : do not, have to Expressing prohibition: must not

(a) I finished all of my homework this afternoon. I don’t have to study tonight.
(b) Tomorrow is a holiday. Mary doesn’t have to go to class
Don’t/doesn’t have to expresses the idea that something is not necessary
(c) Children, you must not play with matches!
(d) We must not use that door. The sign says Private: Do Not Enter
Must not expresses prohibition (Do Not Do This)
(e) You mustn’t play with matches
Must + not=mustn’t. (Note: the first “t” is not pronounced)

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Expressing necessity: have to, have got to, must

(a) I have a very important test tomorrow. I (have to/have got to/must) study tonight
Have to, have got to, and must have basically the same meaning. They express the idea that something is necessary.
(b) I’d like to go with you to the movie this evening, but I can’t. I have to go to a meeting.
(c) Bye now! I’ve get to go. My wife’s waiting for me. I’ll call you later.
(d) All passengers must present their passport at customs upon arrival.
Have to is used much more frequently in everyday speech and writing then must.
Have got to is typically used in informal conversation, as in (c).
Must is typically found in written instructions, as in (d). It is usually a strong, serious, “no nonsense” word.
(e) Do we have to bring pencils to the test?
(f) Why did he have to leave so early?
Questions: Have to is usually used in question, not must or have got to. Forms of do are used with have to in questions.
(g) I had to study last night
The Past form of have to, have got to, and must (meaning necessity) is had to
(h) I have to (“hafta”) go to downtown today
(i) Rita has to (“hasta”) go to the bank
(j) I’ve got to (“gotta”) study tonight

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Expressing advice : had better

(a) My clothes are dirty. I (should/ought to/had better) wash them
(b) You’re driving too past! You’d better slow down.
Had better has the same basic meaning as should and ought to:”This is a good idea. This is good advice.”
Had better usually implies a warning about possible bad and consequences. In (b): If you don’t slow down, there could be a bad result. You could get a speeding ticket or have an accident.
(c) You’d better not eat that meat. It looks spoiled.
Negative: had better not
(d) I’d better send my boss an e-mail right now.
In speaking, had is usually contracted:’d

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Expressing advice : Should and ought to

(a) My clothes are dirty I (should/ought to) wash them
(b) Incorrect: I should to wash them
(c) Incorrect: I ought washing them
Should and ought to have the same meaning. They mean: “This is good idea. This is good advice.”
Forms:
Should + simple form of a verb (no to)
Ought + to + simple form of a verb
(d) You need your sleep. You should not (shouldn't) stay up late.

Polite question, would you, could you, will you, can you

(a) Would you please open the door? Yes
(b) Could you please open the door? Yes. Of course
(c) Will you please open the door? Certainly. I'd be happy to
(d) Can you please open the door? Of course. I’d be glad to.
Sure. (Informal)
Okay. (Informal)
Uh-huh. (Meaning “yes”)
I’m sorry. I’d like to help, but my hands are full.
People use would you, could you, will you, and can you to ask polite questions. The questions ask for someone’s help or cooperation. (a), (b), (c) and (d) have basically the same meaning. The use of can, as in (d), is less formal than the others.
Note: may is not used when you is the subject of a polite question.
Incorrect: may you please open the door?

POLITE QUESTIONS: MAY I, COULD I, CAN I

(a) May I please borrow your pen? yes
(b) Could I please borrow your pen? yes. of course
(c) Can I please borrow your pen? yes certainly.
Sure (informal)
Okay. (informal)
Uh-Huh. (meaning yes)
I'm sorry, but I need to use it myself.
People use may I, could I, and can I to ask polite questions. The questions ask for someone's permission or agreement. (a), (b), and (c) have basically the same meaning.
Note: can I is less formal than may I and could I.
Please can come at the end of the question: may I borrow your pen, please?
Please can be omitted from the question: may I borrow your pen?

Using could to express possibility

(a): Why isn't Greg in class?
B: I don't know. He could be sick.
(b) Look at those dark clouds. It could start raining any minute.
Could can mean past ability. But that is not its only meaning. another meaning of could is possibility.
In (a): "He could be sick" has the same meaning as "He may/might be sick," i.e," it is possible that he is sick."
In (a): could expresses a present possibility
In (b): could expresses a future possibility.

wait for next posting

Expressing possibility: may and might. Permission: may and can

(a) It may rain tomorrow
(b) It might rain tomorrow
(c) A: why isn’t john in class?
B: I don’t know. He (may/might) be sick today
May and might express possibility in the present or future. They have the same meaning. There is no difference in meaning between (a) and (b).
(d) It may not rain tomorrow
(e) It might not rain tomorrow
Negative: may not and might not. (Do not contract May and might with not)
(f) Maybe it will rain tomorrow
Compare
(g) Maybe John is sick (adverb)
(h) John may be sick (verb)
In (f) and (g): maybe spelled as one word) is an adverb. It means “possibly.” It comes at the beginning of  sentence. Incorrect: it will maybe rain tomorrow
In (h): may be (two words) is a verb form: the auxiliary may + the main verb be. Incorrect: John maybe sick.
(i) Yes, children, you may have a cookie after dinner
(j) Okay, kids, you can have a coke after dinner.
May is also used to give permission, as in (i).  Often can is used to give permission, too as in (j).
(i) and (j) have the same meaning, but may is more formal that can.
(k) You may not have a cookie. You can’t have a cookie
May not and cannot (can’t) are used to deny permission (i.e., to say “no”)

Modals to Expressing ability: can and could

(a) Bob can play the piano
(b) You can buy a screwdriver at a hardware store
(c) I can meet you at Ted’s tomorrow afternoon.
Can expresses ability in the present or future
(d) I (can’t/cannot/can not) understand that sentence
The negative form of can may be written can’t, cannot, or can not
(e) Our son could walk when he was one year old.
The past form of can is could
(f) He couldn’t walk when he was six months old
The negative of could: couldn’t or could not
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The form of modal auxiliaries

The verbs listed below are Called “modal auxiliaries.” They are helping verbs that express a wide range of meanings (ability, permission, possibility, necessity etc.). Most of the modals have more than one meaning.
Auxiliary + the simple form of a verb
Can (a) Olga can speak English
Could (b) He couldn’t come to class
May (c) It may rain tomorrow
Might (d) It might rain tomorrow
Should (e) Mary should study harder
Had better (f) I had better study tonight
Must (g) Joe must see a doctor today
Will (h) I will be in class tomorrow
Would (i) Would you please close the door?
Can, could, may, might, should, had better, must, will, and would are immediately followed by the simple form of a verb.
- They are not followed by to. Incorrect: Olga can to speak English
- The main verb does not have a final –s. Incorrect: Olga can speaks English
- The main verb is not in past form. Incorrect: Olga can spoke English
- The main verb is not its –ing form. Incorrect: Olga can speaking English
Auxiliary + to + the simple form of a verb
Have to (j) I have to study tonight
Have got to (k) I have got to study tonight
Ought to (l) Kate ought to study harder
To + the simple form is used with these auxiliaries have to, have got to, and ought to.

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Summary of forms of other

               Adjective                      Pronoun
Singular   another apple                 another
Plural       other apples                  others
Singular   The other apple             the other
Plural       The other apples            the others
Notice that the word others (other + final –s) is used only a plural pronouns.

Plural forms of other: other(s) vs. the other(s)

Other(s)
There are many apples in Paul’s kitchen. Paul is holding one apple.
(a) There are other    apples in a bowl
              (Adjective) + (Noun)
(b) There are other    ones on a plate
                 (Adjective) + (Ones)
(c) There are others on a chair.
                   (Pronoun)
Other(s) (without the) means “several more out of a group of similar items, several in addition to the one(s) already mentioned.” The adjective other (without an –s) can be used with a plural noun (e.g., apples) or with the word ones.
Others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not used with a noun.
In (c): others=other apples.
The other(s)
There are four on the table. Paul is going to take one of them.
(d) Sara is going to take the other apples.
                                  (Adjective) + (Noun)
(e) Sara is going to take the other ones
                                  (Adjective) + (Ones)
(f) Sara is going to take the others
                                          (Pronoun)
The other(s) means “the last ones in a specific group, the remains from a given number of similar items.”
The other (without an –s) can be used as an adjective in front of a noun or the word ones, as in (d) and (e).
The others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun: it is not used with a noun.
In (f): the others=the other apples.

Singular forms of other: another vs. the other

Another
(a) There is a large bowl of apples on the table. Paul is going to eat one apple. If he is still hungry after that, he can eat another apple. There are many apples to choose from.
Another means “one more out of group of similar items, one in addition to the one(s) already mentioned.”
Another is combination of an + other, written as one word.
The other
(b) There are two apples on the table. Paul is going to eat one of them. Sara is going to eat the other apple.
The other means “the last one in a specific group, the only one that remains from a given number of similar items.”
(c) Paul ate one apple then he ate (another apple, another one, another)
(d) Paul ate one apple. Sara ate (the other apple, the other one, the other)
Another and the other can be used as adjective in front of a nun (e.g., apple) or in front of the word one.
Another and the other can also be used alone as pronouns.

Reflexive pronouns

Myself (a) I saw myself in the mirror
Yourself (b) you (one person) saw yourself
Herself (c) she saw herself
Himself (d) he saw himself
Itself (e) it (e.g., the kitchen) saw itself
Ourselves (f) we saw ourselves
Yourselves (g) you (plural) saw yourselves
Themselves (h) they saw themselves
Reflexive pronouns end in –self/-selves. They are used when the subject (e.g., I) and the object (e.g., myself) are the same person. The action of the verb is pointed back to the subject of the sentence, incorrect: I saw me in the mirror.
(i) Greg lives by himself
(j) I sat by myself on the park bench
By + reflexive pronoun = alone. In (i): Greg lives alone, without family or roommates
(k) I enjoyed myself at the fair
Enjoy and a few other verbs are commonly followed by a reflexive pronoun. See the list below.
Common Expressions with Reflexive Pronouns.
Believe in yourself, Blame yourself, Cut yourself, Enjoy yourself, Feel sorry for yourself, Help yourself, Hurt yourself, Give yourself (something), Introduce yourself, Kill yourself, Pinch yourself, Be proud of yourself, Takeoff yourself, Talk to yourself, Teach yourself, Tell yourself, Work for , ourself, Wish yourself (luck)

Possessive pronoun and adjectives

This pen belongs to me
(a) It’s mine
(b) It is my pen
(a) And (b) have the same meaning: they both show possession. Mine is possessive pronoun; my is a possessive adjective.
     Possessive pronoun      Possessive adjective
(c) I have mine.                  I have my pen
(d) You have yours.            You have your pen
(e) She has hers.                  She has her pen
(f) He has his.                      He has his pen
(g) We have ours.                We have our pen
(h) They have theirs.             They have their pens
(i)                                       I have a book. Its cover is black.
A possessive pronoun is used alone, without a noun following it
A possessive adjective is used only with a noun following it:
Incorrect: I have mine pen
Incorrect: I have my
Compare its vs. it’s
(j) Sue gave me a book. I don’t remember its title
(k) Sue gave me a book. It’s a novel
In (j): its (NO apostrophe) is a possessive adjective modifying the noun title
In (k): it’s (with an apostrophe) is a contraction of it + is.
Compare their vs. there vs., they’re
(l) The students have their books
(m) My books are over there
(n) Where are the students? They’re in the class
Their, there, they’re have the same pronunciation, but not the same meaning.
Their = possessive adjective, as in (l)
There = an expression of place, as in (m)
They’re = they are, as in (n)

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS - Possessive nouns

Personal Pronoun:
Subject pronoun: I    we    you   they   he she   it
Object pronoun: me   us   you    them him her it
(a) Kate is married. She has two children
(b) Kate is my friend. I know her well
(c) Mikehas a new blue bicycle. He bought it yesterday.
A pronoun refers to a noun.
In (a): she is a pronoun; it refers to Kate
In (b): her is a pronoun; it refers to Kate
She is a subject pronoun, her is an object pronoun.
(d) Eric and I are good friends.
(e) Ann met Eric and me at the museum
(f) Ann walked between Eric and me
Guidelines for using pronouns following and: if the pronoun is used a part of the subject, use a subject pronoun as in (d). If it part of the object, use an object pronoun, as in (e) and (f).
Incorrect: Eric and me are good friends
Incorrect: Ann met Eric and I at the museum.
Singular pronoun: I   me   you   he, she, it       him, her
Plural pronoun:    we us   you      they                them
(g) Mike is in class. He is taking a test
(h) The students are in class. They are taking a test.
(i) Kate and Tom married. They have two children.
Singular = one. Plural= more than one. Singular pronouns refer to singular nouns, plural pronouns to plural nouns, as in the examples.

Personal pronouns: subjects and objects

Personal Pronoun:
Subject pronoun: I    we    you   they   he she   it
Object pronoun: me   us   you    them him her it
(a) Kate is married. She has two children
(b) Kate is my friend. I know her well
(c) Mikehas a new blue bicycle. He bought it yesterday.
A pronoun refers to a noun.
In (a): she is a pronoun; it refers to Kate
In (b): her is a pronoun; it refers to Kate
She is a subject pronoun, her is an object pronoun.
(d) Eric and I are good friends.
(e) Ann met Eric and me at the museum
(f) Ann walked between Eric and me
Guidelines for using pronouns following and: if the pronoun is used a part of the subject, use a subject pronoun as in (d). If it part of the object, use an object pronoun, as in (e) and (f).
Incorrect: Eric and me are good friends
Incorrect: Ann met Eric and I at the museum.
Singular pronoun: I   me   you   he, she, it       him, her
Plural pronoun:    we us   you      they                them
(g) Mike is in class. He is taking a test
(h) The students are in class. They are taking a test.
(i) Kate and Tom married. They have two children.
Singular = one. Plural= more than one. Singular pronouns refer to singular nouns, plural pronouns to plural nouns, as in the examples.

Using nouns as adjectives

(a) I have a flower garden
(b) The shoe store also sells socks
(c) Incorrect: a flower garden
(d) Incorrect: the shoes store
Sometimes words that are usually used as nouns are used as adjectives. For example, flower is usually a noun, but in (a) it is used as an adjective to modify garden. When a noun is used as an adjective, it is singular in form, NOT plural.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS - Using adjectives to describe nouns

                             ADJ      NOUN
(a) Bob is reading a good book.
Words that describe noun are called adjectives. In (a): good is an adjective, it describes the book.
(b) The tall woman wore a new dress
(c) The short women wore an old dress.
(d) The young women wore a short dress.
We say that adjectives “modify” nouns. “Modify” means “change a little”. An adjective changes the meaning of a noun by giving more information about it.
(e) Roses are beautiful flower
Incorrect: roses are beautifuls flower.
Adjectives are neither singular nor plural. They do not have a plural form.
(f) He wore a white shirt
Incorrect: he wore a shirt white.
(g) Roses are beautiful
(h) His shirt was white
Adjectives usually come immediately before nouns, as in (f).
Adjectives can also follow main verb be, as in (g) and (h)

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS - Subject-verb agreement

    Singular     Singular
(a) The sun   shines
  Plural     Plural
(b) Birds sing
A singular subject takes a singular verb, as in (a). A plural subject takes a plural verb, as in (b).
Notice: verb+ -s = singular (shines)
Noun + -s = plural (birds)
       Singular           Singular
(c) My brother lives in Jakarta
                  Plural                      Plural
(d) My brother and sister live in Jakarta
Two subjects connected by and take a plural verb, as in (d)
(e) The glasses over there under the window by the sink are clean
(f) The information in those magazines about Vietnamese culture and custom is very interesting
Sometimes phrases come between a subject and a verb. These phrases do not affect the agreement of the subject and verb.
          V             S
(g) There is a book on the desk
           V                      S
(h) There are some books on the desk
There + be + subject expresses that something exist in a particular place. The verb agrees with a noun that follows be.
(i) Every student is sitting down
(j) Everybody/everyone hopes for peace
Every is singular word. It is used with a singular, not plural, noun.
Incorrect: every students…..
Subjects with every takes singular verb, as in (i) and (j)
(k) People in my country are friendly.
People is a plural noun and takes a plural verb.

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